Essentials of Japanese Language

Lesson Key Points

As a first step in learning Japanese, we will explore the unique characteristics of the language. This section provides a brief overview, while more detailed explanations will follow in subsequent lectures.

Writing system

The Japanese writing system is characterized by its complexity and flexibility compared to other languages. The main types of characters used in Japanese are hiragana, katakana, and kanji.

The writing system can be divided into two main categories: phonograms, which represent sounds, and logograms, which represent meanings. Kanji, as well as ancient Egyptian hieroglyphs, are examples of logograms. Each logogram represents one or more meanings and may have multiple pronunciations. Phonograms, on the other hand, can be further divided into two types. The first type is phonemic characters, which use phonemes, the smallest recognizable units of sound, as their building blocks. The alphabet used in English is an example of phonemic characters. The second type is syllabic characters, which use syllables—units of sound that typically include at least one consonant and one vowel. In Japanese, hiragana and katakana are syllabic characters.

In summary, kanji represent meanings and can have multiple pronunciations, while hiragana and katakana represent syllables and do not convey specific meanings on their own. Each type of character has its own unique characteristics. Let’s explore these features in more detail.

Hiragana

The most fundamental characters in the Japanese writing system are hiragana. There are 46 hiragana characters used in modern Japanese, and by adding diacritical marks, the number of syllables that can be represented increases to about 120.

The table below categorizes hiragana by vowel and consonant and arranges them accordingly. Vertically, there are 5 vowels, and horizontally, there are 10 consonants. By looking at this table, you can see that combining “k” with “a” produces “ka(か),” and combining “t” with “e” produces “te(て).” This table also reveals that Japanese has only 5 basic vowels, and that the combinations with consonants are almost entirely consistent. Note that, except for “ん,” hiragana do not represent individual consonants on their own.

This table only shows the voiceless sounds in Japanese. Other voiced sounds are represented by adding diacritical marks to these hiragana.

Katakana

Katakana shares the same phonetic chart as hiragana, with each character perfectly corresponding to its hiragana counterpart.

The distinction between katakana and hiragana lies primarily in their usage. Katakana is mainly used to express words that have been borrowed from foreign languages and adapted to Japanese phonetics. For example, “shirt” is written as “シャツ(Shatsu),” “message” as “メッセージ(messēji),” and “Google” as “グーグル(gūguru).”

Additionally, katakana is used in various contexts. Primarily, it is employed for wasei-eigo, or Japanese-made English expressions, as well as for foreign names and place names. Katakana is also commonly seen in onomatopoeia and mimetic words, which convey sounds and descriptive imagery. Furthermore, katakana can be used for emphasis, particularly when highlighting specific words or phrases.

Kanji

Kanji is different from hiragana and katakana, which are phonetic characters, in that each kanji character carries its own meaning. A single kanji often has multiple pronunciations, and there are many kanji characters that share the same pronunciation.

There are 11,233 kanji registered in the Japanese Industrial Standards (JIS) code, and kanji dictionaries contain anywhere from 10,000 to 50,000 characters. However, even native Japanese speakers do not learn all of these kanji. In modern Japanese, 2,136 commonly used kanji, known as Joyo Kanji, have been designated, and these are taught in compulsory education by the age of 15. Some kanji are pictographs that are based on the shapes of visible objects. For example, the kanji “日(hi)” represents the shape of the sun and has come to mean “day” because the sun rises and sets.

The kanji “手(te)” represents an open hand with five fingers and means “hand.”

The kanji “鳥(tori)” is based on the shape of a bird with a long, drooping tail and means “bird.”

The kanji “雨(ame)” represents the image of water falling from clouds, meaning “rain.”

Additionally, there are kanji that combine two or more characters to create a new meaning different from the original kanji. For example, the kanji “木(ki)” represents a tree, but when two “木(ki)” characters are combined, it becomes “林(hayashi)” (grove), and when three are combined, it becomes “森(mori)” (forest).

Understanding the origins and structure of each kanji, including why a particular kanji has a specific radical or shape, can enhance your comprehension and retention when studying kanji.

Romanization and Numerals

In Japan, the primary writing systems include “hiragana”, “katakana”, and “kanji”. In addition to these, “romaji” (Roman letters) are also used. Romaji refers to the transliteration of Japanese into Latin script. There are two main methods of romaji transcription. The first is the “Kunrei-shiki” system, which is based on the rules of Japanese and is recognized as the standard within Japan. This method is taught to elementary school students in public education. The second is the “Hepburn” system, which emphasizes adherence to English pronunciation. Hepburn is widely used in contexts such as passport notation and international communication.

On this site, we use the Hepburn system for romaji, with long vowels indicated by macrons.

Vertical and Horizontal Writing

Japanese can be written in both vertical and horizontal formats. Traditionally, text is written in a vertical format, moving from top to bottom and progressing from right to left across the page. Vertical writing is commonly found in literary works such as novels, poetry, and plays, as well as in newspapers. In manga, speech bubbles are usually written vertically.

In contrast, horizontal writing became more prevalent after the modernization period to align with Western cultural practices. This format is primarily used in specialized books on subjects such as foreign languages, mathematics, science, and music. Documents that contain horizontally written text, mathematical formulas, or musical scores are typically arranged horizontally. Furthermore, web pages, TV, DVD subtitles, and other visual media also employ horizontal writing.

In Japan, both Arabic numerals and kanji numerals are used for representing numbers. As a general rule, kanji numerals are used in vertical writing, while Arabic numerals are used in horizontal writing. Arabic numerals are often used when indicating quantities or orders, especially when other numbers can be substituted, like page numbers or dates. On the other hand, kanji numerals are commonly used for idiomatic expressions and fixed phrases.

Grammar

SOV

The basic sentence structure in English follows the order of Subject – Verb – Object (SVO). In contrast, Japanese sentence structure follows the order of Subject – Object – Verb (SOV). In Japanese, the verb (predicate) is always placed at the end of the sentence in declarative sentences.

Subject and Predicate

In English, sentences are typically structured around a verb, which expresses an action or a state. At the beginning of the sentence, the subject, indicating who or what is performing the action, is placed. In contrast, in Japanese, the beginning of a sentence is occupied by the topic, which indicates what the sentence is about. This topic does not necessarily have to be the subject of the verb. For example, in the sentence “私(watashi)は(wa)ご飯(gohan)を(o)食べる(taberu)” (I eat a meal), “私(watashi)” (I) is the subject of the verb “食べる(taberu)” (eat) and also appears at the beginning of the sentence. However, in the sentence “ご飯(gohan)は(wa)私(watashi)が(ga)食べる(taberu)” (“As for the meal, I will eat it”), “ご飯(gohan)” (the meal) is the topic placed at the beginning, followed by the predicate “私(watashi)が(ga)食べる(taberu)” (I eat it), which explains what is being done with the meal.

Thus, in Japanese sentence structure, the word that appears at the beginning of a sentence is not necessarily the subject of the verb, but rather the topic of the conversation. This feature highlights the importance of the topic in determining the focus and content of the sentence.

Particles

In Japanese, word order is relatively flexible, but we can determine the role of each word using particles. For example, in the sentences “あなた(anata)は(wa)日本語(nihongo)を(o)話す(hanasu)” (You speak Japanese) and “日本語(nihongo)を(o)あなた(anata)は(wa)話す(hanasu)” (You speak Japanese), “は(wa)” marks the topic, and “を(o)” indicates the object. Because of these particles, we can rearrange the words without changing the meaning, as they clarify the topic and object in the sentence.

In these sentences, “は(wa)” marks the topic (often the subject), and “を(o)” identifies the object. This flexibility in word order is possible because particles make it clear what role each word plays, allowing for different arrangements without changing the meaning.

Modifiers

Modifiers are words like “what kind,” “what,” “how,” and “where,” which add more information to other words. In Japanese, modifiers are usually placed before the word they describe. For example, in the sentence “あなた(anata)は(wa)学校(gakkōへ(e)行く(iku)” (You go to school), the phrase “学校(gakkō)へ(e)” (to school) modifies “行く(iku)” (go), specifying where the action of going takes place. This demonstrates how modifiers are positioned before the words they modify to provide specific details within a sentence.

Omission

In Japanese, there is a tendency to omit information that can be inferred from context. Subjects and possessives are often left out when they are not necessary to be explicitly stated. Additionally, information that is already known to both parties is often omitted in conversation.

One reason why Japanese is considered difficult is because of Japan’s high-context culture. In Japan, communication often relies less on words and more on understanding the context or reading “between the lines” to grasp the speaker’s intent. As a result, conversations can often proceed without explicitly stating everything.

honorific

Honorific language in Japanese reflects the relationship between the speaker and the listener. It is used to facilitate smooth communication, build good relationships, and express respect or a formal attitude. There are several types of honorifics in Japanese, with the main categories being polite language, respectful language, and humble language.

Polite language (teineigo) is used in everyday situations with anyone and conveys politeness toward the listener. Respectful language (sonkeigo) is used to show respect toward someone of higher status or someone unfamiliar, elevating the status of the person being spoken about. Humble language (kenjōgo), on the other hand, is used to lower oneself to show respect and elevate the status of the listener or the person being spoken to.

It is important to use honorifics correctly, as using humble language when the subject is a superior could cause offense or create a negative impression. This is especially important in business settings, where a mistake in using honorifics could lead to embarrassment. Therefore, it is essential to gradually learn the proper use of honorific language.

Quiz → Essentials of Japanese Language Quiz